Literature Review: Play Work in Education

Literature Review: Play Work in Education Weisberg, D. S., Kittredge, A. K., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Klahr, D. (2015). Making play work for education. Phi Delta Kappan, 96(8), 8-13. doi:10.1177/0031721715583955 The article encapsulates that in comparison to other forms of play, guided play is the most effective in enhancing the learning skills of children from a range of ages. Guided play incorporates play into education without compromising learning goals or suppressing childrens exploration, as its blend of child-directed play within an adult-initiated environment enables them to become in control of their own learning. This allows them to develop autonomy by forming their own decisions in regards to their upcoming actions and gaining skills to attain information. The balance between freedom and structure in guided-play is more effective than direct teaching or free play, as adults harness a childs appeal to play in the service of learning through scaffolding their actions. This in turn promotes the acceleration of long-term development and encourages better learning outcomes. Weisberg et al have utilised evidence to strengthen their claims and formulate a convincing argument to readers. The citations displayedenable readers to access the resources cited to confirm if the evidence is accurate and to investigate and delve deeper into the topic. This provides the opportunity for readers to gain a deeper understanding of the authors claim, which makes their argument more convincing. The multiple citations also suggest that the authors engaged in an in-depth research, depicting that they share a thorough understanding of play, creating a convincing argument. The citations further suggest that other academic scholars share the same perspective about guided-play as Weisberg et al, making the article more potent. Additionally, multiple examples of studies strengthen the claim of the authors as they provide evidence of how ideas translate into practice. For example, one of the studies provided portrayed that children engaging in guided-play outperformed those who engaged in free-play, whilst learning vocabulary (Dickinson et al., 2013), thus validating the argument of the authors. Moreover, the use of direct quotations emphasise the point of the authors in a concise manner whilst providing strong supporting evidence, making a stronger claim. Majority of the arguments presented are highly convincing as the findings used to support them do not have alternative explanations. However, few cases within the article can be interpreted in another manner, weakening the authors claim. For example Weisberg (2015) claims that the relationship between learning and play is intrinsically linked through guided play. Although factual, this finding could also support a different argument such as the link between learning and free-play, as all play acts as a catalyst of learning. A comparison of the article to alternative readings enables the audience to articulate the strength of the claims made by Weisberg et al. Both Barblett (2010) and Weisberg et al (2015) propose the significance of adults preparing different environments in which child-initiated play can take place. Barblett (2010) explores how creating an intellectual environment prompts children to question activities they are partaking in, which extends their knowledge. This relates to Weisbergs notion of scaffolding, which like an intellectual environment, enables children to assimilate information at their own pace. Weisberg also suggests the importance of preparing a physical environment as it assists children in self-directed exploration and learning. Likewise, Barblett conveys that physical environments provoke and encourage children to engage in exploration and learning during play. Additionally, Brock (2013) exhibits the importance of adults creating rich learning environments as they enable children to fulfil their learning potential. Weisberg and others (2015) explore the significance of children becoming the driving force of their upcoming actions as well as what they desire to explore and how. This is similar to Goldschmeid (1987) theory of heuristic play as it involves self-exploration, which like Weisbergs concept, enables children to become in control of their upcoming actions and decide how they want to utilise the object. Furthermore, Weisberg et al (2015) suggest that elements of guided-play accompanied by direct teaching was the most productive strategy for children to learn. Including direct-teaching in guided-play diminishes the sense of child-directed play, thus becoming unenjoyable. This is supported by (Fisher, 2002) who claims that when adults continually drive learning experiences, golden opportunities for learning are missed. Moreover, Weisbergs perspective differs to Follaris (2013) concept of project work as children are in control of their learning process as they investigate areas of their own choosing. As a result, children are able to formulate concepts and engage in creative thinking which is essential for learning. Like Follari, Touhill (2012) presents the importance of project work as it enables children to exercise their growing sense of agency and autonomy and promote inquiry, curiosity and exploration.

My Favorite Place to Vacation

Attitude/Point: Others will feel the same way about their favorite place to visit for their own specific reasons. and I have noticed that most people visit places because of the weather, and the stress relief you get when you take a vacation.Audience: Individuals or families who are looking for a serene place to vacation to or visit. People who vacation frequently or retirees would benefit from this.Purpose: I will be sharing this opinion to inform the reader of fond memories that can be obtained by visiting Southport and the pleasurable atmosphere.Topic Sentence: My favorite place to visit is Southport, North Carolina because it has relaxing beaches, great weather, and the people there are friendly.Brainstorm List of Possible Examples:Able to read booksClear mind by gazing out into the waterCool breeze throughout the day and nightLocals speak each time you come into contactSentence Outline:My favorite place to visit is Southport, North Carolina because it has relaxing beaches, great weather, and the people there are friendly. To start with, Southport has one of the most relaxing beaches; it helps people relieve stress and focus. For instance, during the school year I am living in the mountains of North Carolina, which can be a very stressful and demanding of me; nonetheless during my summer break I can be found in Southport at the beach.When I finally get to Southport, on the beach, I just lie out in the sun and gaze out at the water and read books, without a care or thought entering my brain. Southport is also my favorite place to  visit because of the weather being so pleasant; it is not to hot but also not to cold.For example, each day during the summer though it is rather warm there is always a cool breeze that will change your entire attitude about the day and the temperature. Lastly, I like to visit Southport because the people are so welcoming, which makes it so much more enjoyable and serene.Each and every time I go on a walk or bike ride, everyone i s continuously speaking to you and have a word or two more to say. The locals are always walking around with a smile willing to engage in any way to help. In a nutshell, even though I only visit Southport during the summer this is why it is my favorite place to vacation.

A Book Report on Irene Hunt’s

Irene Hunt’s No Promises in the Wind (1975) is a story about the plight of fifteen-year-old Josh and his brother Joey, set in the desperate state of the U.S. during the Great Depression of the ‘30s.The two boys hailed from Chicago, born from a middle class family. The Stock market crashed signaling the start of the Depression (Great Depression, 2005). This has been â€Å"particularly severe in Chicago because of the city's reliance on manufacturing, the hardest hit sector nationally† (Deutsch, 2005).   More than half of the workforce lost their jobs (Deutsch, 2005), including their father, Stephan. When this happened their father changed from someone who is kindhearted into a bitter, angry man.Those times were ridden with problems and he takes his anger out on his oldest son Josh. But rather, it could be supposed that he is angrier with himself for being helpless in their situation, what with the pressures of providing for his family.Desperate times necessitate that kids those days mature early, and even though Josh is a mere boy, he leaves his family with his best friend Howie with dreams of being musicians, his little brother Joey tagging along.The brothers experience a devastating blow when Howie got run over by a train. When they continued to venture forth, they realize how hard to make it out in the real world. They were cold and hungry, at times even resorting to begging for food.They meet a lot of interesting and endearing people along the way and saw how people from different parts of the country, such as Louisiana and Nebraska, were being affected by the Depression. Such people like Lonnie, a generous trucker who tries to help them whenever he can despite tough times, and Emily, a beautiful and attractive a circus clown.Hunt paints a harrowing portrait of that period and how desperate times change people, emotionally and psychologically. She shows that when the going gets tough, man’s instincts for survival take over, even at the sake of common goodness and humanity. On the other side of the coin, it is also a testament that kindness still endures.The story is largely character driven, and the author makes good use of her skill in portraying emotions, especially how the Depression changed people. With deft descriptions and stirring language, she conjures a moving image of a desperate America, and what people do in order to survive. Some parts could seem too unrealistic, such as Josh’s illogical ambitions and the brothers’ seemingly continuous luck, but in the end it is successful in providing us a glimpse of the general populace’s real state of living during that period.ReferencesDeutsch, T. (2005).   Great Depression. In The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved November 22, 2005, from http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/542.htmlGreat Depression. (2005). In Wikipedia. Retrieved November 23, 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_DepressionHunt, I. (1 975). No Promises in the Wind.   Chicago: Follet Publishing.  

Chemical Reactions Of Energy And How It Changes Essay

Thermochemistry deals with energy and how it changes. We performed chemical reactions in a calorimeter, which is a device scientists use to determine the amount of heat produced by a process (or change). Processes that absorb energy are endothermic and processes that release energy are exothermic. Endothermic, processes that absorbed energy produced positive results. Where as, exothermic, processes that release energy produced negative results. This experiment also dealt with specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat gained or lost when one gram of a substance changes temperature by one degree Celsius. Our experiment this week explored these concepts. Experimental Procedures In this experiment, we performed chemical reactions in a calorimeter to determine the amount of heat produced by heat (temperature) change. In part one of the experiment, we set up our calorimeter as shown in a diagram given. We connected it to our computer for data collection with the temperature probe. To start data collection, we first mixed 15 mL of 1.0 M HCl solution and 20 mL distilled water and recorded the initial temperature. Next, we added 25 mL of 1.0 M NaOH solution to the mixture. To homogenize the mixture, mix gently until the maximum temperature has been reached and record that as the final temperature. Next, we needed to calculate our results for the heat of reaction ΔH in units of Joules. In a chart, we recorded the total mass of our mixture and determined the number of molesShow MoreRelatedGummy Bear Experiment1159 Words   |  5 PagesGummy Bears Energy is a concept.ï ¿ ½ Most definitions of the word energy fail to provide its exact meaning when applied to scientific matters.ï ¿ ½ In science the word energy is a concept that expresses two measurable properties, heat and work.ï ¿ ½ Here is the relationship of energy, heat and work: Energy Released=Work Done + Heat Released The Law of Conservation of Energy, derived from centuries of observation and measurement, indicates that energy cannot be created or destroyed. But energy need not stayRead MoreHeat Of Combustion Using Hydrocarbons As Fuel1219 Words   |  5 Pagesusing hydrocarbons as fuel. All three fuels produce combustion reactions which are exothermic. When bonds are formed or broken the most common form of energy released or taken in is heat energy. Heat of combustion is a way of measuring how much energy is output from a combustion reaction, the energy that is output is usually in the form of heat. Figure 1. Combustion reaction of methane (middleschoolchemistry.com) When a combustion reaction takes place it is when a liquid (typically a hydrocarbon) getsRead MoreThe Six Branches Of Chemistry1482 Words   |  6 Pagesbranches of chemistry ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, and preparation of chemical compounds that consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen. organic chemistry the study of most carbon containing compounds INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and behaviour of inorganic compounds. It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds. Inorganic chemists study things such as crystal structures, minerals, metals, catalystsRead MoreThe Effect Of Chemical Reactions On Temperature, Enthalpy, And Specific Heat1364 Words   |  6 PagesDuring this experiment we tested the amount of change in heat given off during different chemical reactions. We created a calorimeter that we will use to test different reactions to see how the heat energy was affected. After completing the experiments we were able to tell what chemicals or metals would change the heat energy for every reaction we tested. Overall, this experiment showed us what characteristics of chemical reactions affect the change in temperature, enthalpy, and specific heat. Read MoreHow an Acid (Coke) Can React Together with Potassium to Create a Charger for an iPone1477 Words   |  6 Pagespurpose of this experiment is to show how an acid (Coke) can react together with potassium to create a charger for an iPhone. Potassium and acid formed together makes bubbles. 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Cold Packs Most cold packs come with a fabric cover made to absorb condensation andRead MoreFactors That Affect The Rate Of Reaction Of A Chemical Reaction1154 Words   |  5 Pagesconsumed. They have the ability to increase the rate of reaction in a chemical reaction. Catalysts achieve this by lowering the amount of energy required for a reaction to take place, which means that it occurs at a quicker rate. Potentially, molecules that would once have taken years to interact, can take seconds with the addition of a catalyst. The overall purpose of a catalyst is to ensure that reactions proceed effectively which is why a range of catalysts are commonly used in many elementsRead MoreIb 150 Exam 11240 Words   |  5 Pagesshare * The five characteristics all organisms share is: information, replication, evolution, cells, and energy (cerie) B. Explain why the first four are required for life * Cells allow things to go in and out of the organism (allows diffusion to happen so good things go in and bad things go out) * Energy is required because it allows most functions and reactions to happen in the organism * Information: so your cells know what to do next( aka the things happeningRead MoreThe Effect Of Temperature On The Reaction Rate Of Hydrochloric Acid And Magnesium1059 Words   |  5 Pagestemperature on the reaction rate of hydrochloric acid and magnesium. Introduction: Chemistry happens everywhere, not just in a lab. Matter interacts to form new substances through a process called a chemical reaction. Your body lives and grows because of chemical reactions, whether by taking medicine or even a breath. A chemical reaction is defined as the process that involves rearrangement of the ionic structure of a substance. A reaction rate is how fast or slow a reaction takes place. Chemicals that proceedRead MoreThe Production Of Light Without Heat From A Chemical Reaction1536 Words   |  7 Pagesheat from a chemical reaction. In this reaction, energy is released as electromagnetic radiation in the visible light spectrum. It does not require the absorption of electromagnetic energy to excite molecules into a higher energy state. Instead, the energetics of the reaction itself releases energy as light. This means that there there is an intermediate molecule in an excited state which returns to a lower energy level, releasing its energy in the fo rm of a photon of light. The reaction within a

Enrons Organizational Culture Enron - 1643 Words

Enron: [Don’t] Ask Why During the year 2000, Enron was exceeding all expectations, its stock was through the roof, and the company seemed to be on top of the world. The next year Enron declared bankruptcy. So how did a company rise and fall so quickly? The key in analysing this question lies in Enron’s organizational culture, which is defined as â€Å"a shared meaning held by members distinguishing an organization† (Robbins and Judge, Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 269). During its prime, Enron appeared to be a successful and innovative company, but in reality was a company rooted in an organizational culture of corruption and greed. The five culture dimensions of stability, risk taking and innovation, attention to detail, outcome orientation, and aggressiveness are key to understanding how unethical behavior became such a problem at Enron. Before going into an analysis on the organizational culture at Enron, I will first elaborate on the severity of the unethical behavior that existed at Enron. The problem can best be shown in the words of an Enron employee who said â€Å"If I’m going to my boss’s office to talk about compensation, and if I step on some guy’s throat and that doubles it, then I’ll stomp on that guy’s throat†(Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room). This culture of greed and corruption can also be seen through Enron’s mark to market accounting system, in which Enron cashed in on ideas and â€Å"future profits† without actually making anything. Furthermore,Show MoreRelatedOrganizational Culture : The Smartest Guys Of The Room1649 Words   |  7 PagesJudge, organizational culture is, â€Å"a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations† (Robbins 249). 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Prevention And The Prevention Of Cancer - 1451 Words

In an attempt to keep anyone from wasting their time reading an article that does not apply to them we need to clearly define the subject of this article. If you are comfortable with waiting for a miracle drug to cure cancer, expecting that early detection through any number of exams at your physicians office followed by chemotherapy in an attempt to kill the now detectable cancer cells, then this article is not for you. If however, you would prefer to avoid cancer totally by preventing it before it starts, then please read on. When addressing nutrition and the prevention of cancer one of the hottest topics in this arena at this time are antioxidants. The primary reason that antioxidants have received increasing attention is based on the very nature of cancer cells themselves, how they are started and more importantly how they can be eliminated before becoming detectable. For most forms of cancer, they get their start when your cell s DNA becomes damage in some form. Keep in mind that your body is generating new cells on a daily basis and that these new cells are being created based on the blue print of how they should be constructed. That blue print is your DNA. When your DNA has become damaged or during the creation process of these new cells they come in contact with free radicals they are damaged. Unchecked that damage begins going through an uncontrolled growth and at some point this once damaged cells has now become a tumor. While there is a lot of talk aboutShow MoreRelatedPrevention Persuasive Essay : Cancer Prevention941 Words   |  4 PagesBiology B Cancer Prevention Persuasive Essay Everyday, an abundance of people ask what they can do to prevent themselves from especially getting cancer. Cancer, very similar to the steps of mitosis, occurs when cells divide uncontrollably. It starts by how a cell or a group of cells doesn’t follow the body’s typical growth controls. 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It isRead MorePrimary Prevention of Breast Cancer1192 Words   |  5 Pagestopic related to primary prevention, secondary prevention, or tertiary care. Explain why this is an important topic of discussion based on your personal belief, and based on valid research. Paper should be 1.5 – 2 pages. APA format must be followed. Detailed assignment information will be provided. Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in women and the 2nd most leading cause of their death. It is estimated that 1 in 8 women will be diagnosed with breast cancer in their life time and it

Silence Speaks Louder Than Words free essay sample

As companies to a greater extend are held account for the social consequences of their business activities, the pressure to be socially responsible has created a tension between business and society and caused companies to think of CSR in generic ways. In fact, the most common corporate response has been neither strategic, nor operational, but cosmetic; public relations and media campaigns, the centrepieces of which are often glossy CSR reports that showcase companies’ socially and environmentally good deeds. However, the extensive use of CSR for marketing ommunication has caused consumers to question the motivation behind the actions and resulted in increased scepticism and cynicism toward companies’ CSR messages. To gain an understanding of how companies can avoid this consumer scepticism and communicate a credible CSR message, this thesis explores the field of CSR and identifies the benefits as well as shortcomings of the various communication tools. Furthermore, it seeks to examine how Noir, a company highly recognised for its sustainable business model, has chosen to communicate about its CSR engagement. We will write a custom essay sample on Silence Speaks Louder Than Words or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As a consequence of this development, it has now become common business practice to publish corporate literature and marketing communication material giving details on CSR activities as a way of showing consideration and recognition of the companies’ various stakeholders. In fact, non-financial reporting has evolved to such a degree that companies now produce specific CSR reports in order to â€Å"showcase† their engagement in social causes (Tench Yeomans, 2006). However, studies have found the use of CSR engagement for marketing communication purposes distasteful to some consumers (Drumwright, 1996). Some academics even argue that this approach to CSR is unfortunate as it creates a tension between business and society. According to their view, the pressure to be socially responsible causes companies to think of CSR in generic ways and pit businesses against society, even though the two are highly interdependent (Porter Kramer, 2006). Acknowledging this interdependency, companies have to a greater extend come to recognise CSR as central to core business activities rather than peripheral considerations associated with philanthropy. In fact, some academics argue that, by integrating CSR into the frameworks that guide core business practices, companies can gain a competitive advantage and, at the same time, overcome the increasing consumer scepticism and cynicism towards companies’ CSR messages. However, if a company has managed to fully integrate CSR into the core of its business principles, the question of how to avoid consumer scepticism and communicate a credible CSR message still remains. ? 5? Problem Statement (Gro Lea) Integrating ethical fashion with sexy and edgy designs, the Danish fashion company Noir is recognised for driving a sustainable business model based on Corporate Social Responsibility principles (Wong, 2009). Therefore, Noir appears to be a perfect example of a company that has succeeded in integrating CSR into its core framework and managed to overcome consumer scepticism by applying a different communication strategy. In this thesis, we therefore find it particularly interesting to investigate how Noir communicates its CSR engagement, why the company chooses to do so, and if this communication strategy is effective. In order to answer these questions, we will make an in-depth analysis of Noir’s corporate websites and subsequently conduct a quantitative study, since this will give us an indication of the actual effectiveness of the company’s communication efforts. Method (Gro Lea) Overall, our thesis is based on a hermeneutical foundation, since hermeneutics refers to the study of interpretation theory (Palmer, 1969). In this paper, we choose to base our analysis on methodological as well as philosophical hermeneutics in order to interpret the intentions of the sender and subsequently analyse how the sender’s messages are received. In the analytical part of the thesis, we wish to reveal the meaning, which the sender has injected into the texts of the websites in order to gain an in-dept understanding and interpretation of the texts from the senders’ point of view (Palmer, 1969). Hence, we apply the scientific method of methodological hermeneutics. However, in our discussion, we acknowledge the fact that texts hold a potentiality of meanings and that individuals construct interpretations differently across cultures and countries. Therefore, we base our research on a philosophical hermeneutical foundation, since we in our own empirical research focus on how consumers receive and interpret Noir’s messages. ? 6? Theory and Structure (Gro Lea) This thesis is divided into three different parts: a theoretical part, an analytical part, and a discussion. The Theoretical Part In the first part of the thesis, we present and discuss the three dominant approaches to CSR from a theoretical perspective in order to gain a better understanding of the concept. To gain a deeper understanding of the relation between CSR and branding and discuss how a company can benefit from integrating CSR in its branding strategies, we have included the work of Fan (2005) since it explores the concept of ethical branding and its link to corporate reputation. As mentioned previously, we acknowledge that CSR and communication about it is different and can be perceived differently across cultures. Therefore, we include Maignan (2001), who compares consumers’ understanding of and reaction to CSR in different countries. Finally, to end this theoretical part of the thesis, we pay attention to Morsing Schultz’s (2006) research based on data from a national reputation survey in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, since it highlights the CSR communication challenges companies face when operating in Scandinavian countries. ? 7? The Analytical Part As mentioned previously, we will use Noir as a case study. Therefore, we open the second part of the thesis by making a short presentation of Noir and analysing the company’s CSR strategy. More specifically, we do this by drawing on Porter Kramer’s theoretical framework of strategic CSR. In order to determine how companies can engage in CSR in a credible manner and thereby avoid consumer scepticism, we will make an in-depth analysis of Noir and Illuminati II’s websites. Our method builds on the work of Askehave Nielsen (2005) as their theoretical framework is based on research related to websites. More specifically, their framework is based on the Swalesian genre model, which operates with the otion of communicative purpose, move structures, and rhetorical strategies. According to this model, a text contains different visual and textual rhetorical strategies in order to realise different moves. Subsequent analysis of these moves will lead to an understanding of the overall communicative purpose of the text. However, since the original genre model primarily focuses on texts, Askehave Nielsen (2005) include the general characteristics of websites and thereby introduce a genre model that captures the essence of text and medium simultaneously. In order to identify the visual and textual rhetorical strategies applied on the two websites, we will include Aristotle’s Rhetoric, which focuses on the different appeals a sender can use in order to persuade an audience; Ethos (credibility), Pathos (emotion), and Logos (logic) (Corbett,1971). In relation to the textual part, we pay special attention to Stillar’s (1998) theoretical framework that builds on Halliday’s Register Analysis since it help identify the linguistic structures and functions of texts. In addition, this Register Analysis recognises that linguistic structures simultaneously function to represent experiences of the world, construct social relationships among the participants in the discourse, and create text that coheres with its context. In addition to Halliday’s Register Analysis, we find the work of Pollach (2005) particularly interesting as it is based on Halliday’s framework. More specifically, Pollach (2005) analyses the linguistic structures and functions different companies have applied in order to enhance message credibility and improve their selfpresentation on the WWW. 8? In relation to the visual part of the analysis, we primarily use the visual analysis tools offered by Kress Van Leeuwen (2006). In their framework, they operate with the Ideational, the Interpersonal, and the Textual Metafunction. Whereas the Ideational Metafunction deals with the different choices or different ways in which objects and their relation to other objects can be represented in an image, the Interpersonal Metafunction serves to project the relations between the producer and the receiver in order to present a particular social relation between the two. Finally, the Textual Metafunction, also referred to as composition, attempts to identify how representational and interactive element are integrated into a meaningful whole and how these elements are endowed with specific information value. Finally, we make references to Mark’s (2003) Formal Analysis as it focuses on colour and colour symbolism. Discussion In the third and final part of the thesis, we will discuss the findings of our analysis and relate the findings to the theory described previously, as this will give us an indication of why Noir has chosen its particular communication strategy. Finally, by conducting a quantitative study in the form of a questionnaire, we seek to reveal consumers’ general knowledge of Noir and its CSR engagement, determine if the perception of the brand is consistent with Noir’s desired image, since this will give us an indication of the overall effectiveness of Noir’s communication strategies. Delimitations (Gro Lea) Since the field of CSR and communication is broad and can be addressed and examined from various perspectives, we acknowledge that the perspective we have applied in this thesis leads to the delimitation of others. Branding theory and different branding techniques, for example, will not be discussed thoroughly in this thesis as we have chosen to focus on CSR and its relation to communication. However, the concept of branding will be used when discussing why companies engage in CSR and when determining how Noir wishes to be perceived as a brand. Furthermore, while acknowledging the fact that CSR and communication about it is different and can be perceived differently across cultures, we find an in-depth discussion of culture and CSR too comprehensive for this thesis. We therefore choose to only briefly reflect upon some perspectives related to culture when comparing U. S. and European consumers. As we have chosen to focus on how Noir communicates its CSR messages on its corporate website, we will avoid elaborating further on the effectiveness of other communication vehicles Noir uses. In addition, we have, in our analysis, chosen to leave out BLLACK NOIR’s website and focus entirely on Noir and Illuminati II’s websites, as Noir, being the main line, aims to target a smaller and more distinctive target audience. Since the analysis of Illuminati II’s website revealed that Illuminati II primarily aims to target other fashion companies, it would be particularly interesting to investigate how Illuminati II’s messages are received by companies in the B2B market. However, as this would be a fairly timeconsuming and extensive process, we have chosen to focus solely on the reception of Noir’s messages in the B2C market. Three Different Approaches to CSR (Lea) The discussion about what exactly CSR means and how it should be practiced is not new. Over the last 50 years, intensive debates haven taken place among academics, consultants, and corporate executives. They have created, supported or criticised related concepts such as sustainability, corporate citizenship, Triple Bottom Line, business ethics, and CSR (Marrewijk, 2003). A rich literature on CSR has emerged, however, the practical guidance it offers to managers is often unclear. In fact, the discussion appears to have caused even more confusion and put business executives in an awkward dilemma (Porter Kramer, 2006). To understand how this confusion has arisen and where corporations should go from now, it is essential to examine the primary schools of CSR, since this will provide an overview of the different approaches and arguments in the debate. Overall, academics have referred to three different approaches to CSR, each including and transcending one other, in the attempt of defining to whom an organisation is responsible (Marrewijk, 2003). The Shareholder Approach Nobel price-winning economist Milton Friedman (1970) defines CSR as â€Å"the social responsibility of a business to increase its profits† (p. 123). He argues that in order to create a successfully functioning society, institutions have to specialise. Since the corporation is an economic institution, it should therefore specialise in the economic and not the social sphere. This classical view on CSR has become known as the shareholder approach. 10? ? Some have argued that this view can be interpreted as business enterprises being concerned with CSR â€Å"only to the extend that it contributes to the aim of business, which is the creation of long-term value for owners of the business† (Marrewijk, 2003, p. 96). To companies operating from this view, the only motivation for engaging in CSR would therefore be to maximise profits in order to satisfy shareholders. Friedman’s view on CSR has been present in the discussions of CSR and business ethics since the 1970’s. Even today, his arguments separate the waters among academics. While followers of Friedman’s economic view emphasise that profits clearly are socially beneficial, since positive outcomes such as greater employment and higher wages often derive from them, others (Gallagher, 2005; Hamann, 2003) have criticised this profitoriented approach as they claim that it is outdated and fails to address some important issues that characterise the relationship between business and society today. The most common critique of Friedman’s view relates to ethics and its role in companies’ motivation and decision-making.